Sacred Books of the East

The Sacred Books of the East is a monumental 50-volume set of English translations of Asian religious texts, edited by Max Müller and published by the Oxford University Press between 1879 and 1910. It incorporates the essential sacred texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and Islam.

Volume I: The Upanishads (Part 1 of 2)

Khândogya Upanishad
Talavakâra or Kena-Upanishad
Aitareya-Âranyaka
Kaushîtaki-Brâhmana
Vâjasaneyi-Sâmhita Upanishad

The Upanishads are late Vedic Sanskrit texts of religious teachings which form the foundations of Hinduism. They are the most recent part of the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, the Vedas, that deal with meditation, philosophy, and ontological knowledge; other parts of the Vedas deal with mantras, benedictions, rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices. Among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture, the Upanishads played an important role in the development of spiritual ideas in ancient India, marking a transition from Vedic ritualism to new ideas and institutions. Of all Vedic literature, the Upanishads alone are widely known, and their central ideas are at the spiritual core of Hinduism.

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta. Vedanta has been interpreted as the “last chapters, parts of the Veda” and alternatively as “object, the highest purpose of the Veda”. The concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Ātman (soul, self) are central ideas in all of the Upanishads, and “know that you are the Ātman” is their thematic focus. Along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads (known collectively as the Prasthanatrayi) provide a foundation for the several later schools of Vedanta, among them, two influential monistic schools of Hinduism.

Around 108 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down orally. The mukhya Upanishads predate the Common Era, but there is no scholarly consensus on their date, or even on which ones are pre- or post-Buddhist. The Brhadaranyaka is seen as particularly ancient by modern scholars.

Of the remainder, 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects that are unconnected to the Vedas.

With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they also started to attract attention from a Western audience. German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called it “the most profitable and elevating reading which… is possible in the world”. Modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and major Western philosophers.

Volume II: The Sacred Laws of the Âryas (Dharmaśāstra) (Part 1 of 2)

Âpastamba
Gautama
Vâsishtha
Baudhâyana

Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit theological texts, and refers to the treatises (śāstras) of Hinduism on dharma. There are many Dharmashastras, variously estimated to be 18 to about 100, with different and conflicting points of view. Each of these texts exist in many different versions, and each is rooted in Dharmasutra texts dated to 1st millennium BCE that emerged from Kalpa (Vedanga) studies in the Vedic era.

The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verses, are part of the Hindu Smritis, constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on duties, responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society. The texts include discussion of ashrama (stages of life), varna (social classes), purushartha (proper goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as ahimsa (non-violence) against all living beings, rules of just war, and other topics.

Dharmaśāstra became influential in modern colonial India history, when they were formulated by early British colonial administrators to be the law of the land for all non-Muslims (Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs) in South Asia, after Sharia i.e. Mughal Empire’s Fatawa-e-Alamgiri set by Emperor Muhammad Aurangzeb, was already accepted as the law for Muslims in colonial India.

Volume III: The Sacred Books of China (Part 1 of 6)

The Shû King (Classic of History)
- Book of Thang
- Books of Yü
- Books of Hsiâ
- Books of Shang
- Books of Kâu
Shih King, the Book of Odes (Classic of Poetry)
- Odes of the Temple and the Altar
- Minor Odes of the Kingdom
- Major Odes of the Kingdom
- Lessons from the States
The Hsiâo King (Classic of Filial Piety)

The Four Books and Five Classics are the authoritative books of Confucianism in China written before 300 BC. The Book of Documents (Shūjīng, earlier Shu King) or Classic of History, also known as the Shangshu (“Esteemed Documents”), is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature. It is a collection of rhetorical prose attributed to figures of ancient China, and served as the foundation of Chinese political philosophy for over 2,000 years.

The Classic of Poetry, also Shijing or Shih-ching, translated variously as the Book of Songs, Book of Odes or simply known as the Odes or Poetry, is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, comprising 305 works dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. It is one of the “Five Classics” traditionally said to have been compiled by Confucius, and has been studied and memorized by scholars in China and neighboring countries over two millennia.

The Classic of Filial Piety, also known by its Chinese name as the Xiaojing, is a Confucian classic treatise giving advice on filial piety: that is, how to behave towards a senior such as a father, an elder brother, or a ruler.

Volume IV: Zend-Avesta (Part 1 of 3)

Vendîdâd

The Avesta is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in Avestan language. The Avesta texts fall into several different categories, arranged either by dialect, or by usage. The principal text in the liturgical group is the Yasna, which takes its name from the Yasna ceremony, Zoroastrianism’s primary act of worship, and at which the Yasna text is recited. The most important portion of the Yasna texts are the five Gathas, consisting of seventeen hymns attributed to Zoroaster himself. These hymns, together with five other short Old Avestan texts that are also part of the Yasna, are in the Old (or ‘Gathic’) Avestan language. The remainder of the Yasna‘s texts are in Younger Avestan, which is not only from a later stage of the language, but also from a different geographic region.

The Vendidad or Videvdat is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta. However, unlike the other texts of the Avesta, the Vendidad is an ecclesiastical code, not a liturgical manual. The name of the texts is a contraction of the Avestan language Vî-Daêvô-Dāta, “Given Against the Daevas (Demons)”, and as the name suggests, the Vendidad is an enumeration of various manifestations of evil spirits, and ways to confound them. According to the divisions of the Avesta as described in the Denkard, a 9th-century text, the Vendidad includes all of the 19th nask, which is then the only nask that has survived in its entirety.

Volume V: Pahlavi Texts (Part 1 of 5)

Bundahis
Selections of Zâd-sparam
Bahman Yast
Shâyast lâ-Shâyast

Pahlavi is a particular, exclusively written form of various Middle Iranian languages. Bundahishn (“Primal Creation”) is the name traditionally given to an encyclopedic collection of Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology written using the script Book Pahlavi. The original name of the work is not known. Although the Bundahishn draws on the Avesta and develops ideas alluded to in those texts, it is not itself scripture. The content reflects Zoroastrian scripture, which, in turn, reflects both ancient Zoroastrian and pre-Zoroastrian beliefs. In some cases, the text alludes to contingencies of post-7th century Islam in Iran, and in yet other cases, such as the idea that the Moon is farther than the stars, it reiterates scripture even though science had, by then, determined otherwise.

The Zand-i Wahman Yasn is a medieval Zoroastrian apocalyptical text in Middle Persian. It professes to be a prophetical work, in which Ahura Mazda gives Zoroaster an account of what was to happen to the behdin (those of the “good religion”, i.e. the Zoroastrians) and their religion in the future. The oldest surviving manuscript (K20, in Copenhagen) is from about 1400, but the text itself is older, written and edited over the course of several generations. The work is also known as the Bahman Yasht and Zand-i wahman yasht. These titles are scholastic mistakes, in the former case due to 18th century Anquetil Du Perron, and the latter due to 19th century Edward William West.

Shāyast ne-Shāyast (“Proper and Improper”) is an 8th/9th-century Zoroastrian Middle Persian compilation of miscellaneous laws and customs regarding sin and impurity, with other memoranda about ceremonies and religious subjects in general. The content of this collection are of a very varied character, but sins and good works, precautions to avoid impurities, details of ceremonies and customs, the mystic signification of the Gathas, and praise of the sacred beings are the principal subjects discussed.

Volume VI: The Qur’an, Chapters I-XVI (Part 1 of 2)

The Quran (lit. ‘the recitation’) is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God (Allah). It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature. It is organized in 114 chapters (surah), which consist of verses (āyāt).

Muslims believe that the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final prophet, Muhammad, through the archangel Gabriel (Jibril), incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning in the month of Ramadan, when Muhammad was 40; and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad’s most important miracle; a proof of his prophethood; and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to Adam, including the Tawrah (Torah), the Zabur (“Psalms”) and the Injil (“Gospel”).

The Quran is thought by Muslims to be not simply divinely inspired, but the literal word of God. Muhammad did not write it as he did not know how to write. According to tradition, several of Muhammad’s companions served as scribes, recording the revelations. Shortly after the prophet’s death, the Quran was compiled by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph Uthman established a standard version, now known as the Uthmanic codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with mostly minor differences in meaning.

The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical and apocryphal scriptures. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for mankind (2:185). It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. Supplementing the Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives, and rulings that also provide the basis for sharia (Islamic law) in most denominations of Islam, are hadiths – oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad.

Volume VII: The Institutes of Visnu

Vishnu Smriti is one of the latest books of the Dharmaśāstra tradition in Hinduism and the only one which does not deal directly with the means of knowing dharma. The text has a strong bhakti orientation, requiring daily puja to the god Vishnu. It is also known for its handling of the controversial subject of the practice of sati (the burning of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre). A Banaras pandit, Nadapandita, was the first to write a commentary on the Vishnu Smriti in 1622, but the book was not translated into English until 1880 by Julius Jolly.

The Vishnu Smriti is divided into one hundred chapters, consisting mostly of prose text but including one or more verses at the end of each chapter. The premise of the narration is a frame story dialogue between the god Vishnu and the goddess Earth (Prithvi). This frame story remains present throughout the text, unlike many Dharmaśāstras where the simple expounding of laws takes over for the majority of the books.

The text begins when Vishnu realizes that Earth is submerged underwater. He dives in to rescue her, lifting her up out of the water and exposing her surface. Earth is grateful but worries who will continue to support her in the future. Vishnu then assures her that she should not worry because, “Good people who take delight in the conduct of the social classes and the orders of life who are totally devoted to the śāstras, O Earth, will support you. The task of caring for you is entrusted to them.” (1.47). Having been comforted, the Earth continues, asking, “Tell me, O Eternal One, the Laws of the social classes and orders of life.” (1.48-1.49). From this question, Vishnu then launches into his teachings of dharma.

Volume VIII: The Bhagavadgîtâ

Sanatsugâtîya
Anugîtâ

The Bhagavad Gita (“The Song of God”), often referred to as the Gita, is a 701-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic Mahabharata (chapters 23–40 of Bhishma Parva), dated to the second century BCE. It is considered to be one of the main holy scriptures for Hinduism.

The Gita is set in a narrative framework of a dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Krishna, an avatar of Lord Vishnu. At the start of the Dharma Yuddha (righteous war) between Pandavas and Kauravas, Arjuna is filled with moral dilemma and despair about the violence and death the war will cause in the battle against his own kin. He wonders if he should renounce and seeks Krishna’s counsel, whose answers and discourse constitute the Bhagavad Gita. Krishna counsels Arjuna to “fulfill his Kshatriya (warrior) duty to uphold the Dharma” through “selfless action”. The Krishna–Arjuna dialogues cover a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon ethical dilemmas and philosophical issues that go far beyond the war Arjuna faces.

The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis of Hindu ideas about dharma, theistic bhakti, and the yogic ideals of moksha. The text covers jñāna, bhakti, karma, and rāj yogas (spoken of in the 6th chapter) incorporating ideas from the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy. The Bhagavad Gita is the best known and most famous of Hindu texts, with a unique pan-Hindu influence. The Gita‘s call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the Indian independence movement including Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi; the latter referred to it as his “spiritual dictionary”.

The Sānatsujātiya refers to a portion of the Mahābhārata, a Hindu epic. It appears in the Udyoga Parva (book), and is composed of five chapters (Adyāya 41–46). One reason for the Sānatsujātiya‘s importance is that it was commented upon by Adi Shankara, the preeminent expositor of Advaita Vedanta, and one of the most important Hindu sages, philosophers, and mystics.

Anugita is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the Book 14 (Ashvamedhika Parva) of the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. Anugita literally means an Anu (“continuation, alongside, subordinate to”) of Gita. The original was likely composed between 400 BCE and 200 CE, but its versions probably modified through about the 15th- or 16th-century. It is regarded by Hindus as an appendix to the Bhagavad Gita found in Book 6. Like it, the Anugita is one of the treatises on Dharma (ethics, moral precepts). Anugita is, in part, a retelling of some of the ethical premises of the Bhagavad Gita through legends and fables, instead of the distilled philosophy found in the Bhagavad Gita.

It contains a summary by Vaisampayana who heard and remembered Krishna’s conversation with Arjuna after the Mahabharata war is over. They discuss various topics on ethics and morality, as well as the nature of existence. It is one of the numerous such dialogues and debates found in the Mahabharata. The text, consisting of thirty six chapters (from XVI to LI) of its Book 14, contains many of theories found in the ancient Mukhya Upanishads.

Volume IX: The Qur’an, Chapters XVII-CXIV (Part 2 of 2)

Volume X: Dhammapada, Sutta-Nipâta

The Dhammapada is a collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form and one of the most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures.[2] The original version of the Dhammapada is in the Khuddaka Nikaya, a division of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism.

The Buddhist scholar and commentator Buddhaghosa explains that each saying recorded in the collection was made on a different occasion in response to a unique situation that had arisen in the life of the Buddha and his monastic community. His translation of the commentary, the Dhammapada Atthakatha, presents the details of these events and is a rich source of legend for the life and times of the Buddha.

The Sutta Nipāta (lit. ’Section of the Suttas’) is a Buddhist scripture, a sutta collection in the Khuddaka Nikaya, part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism.

Volume XI: Buddhist Suttas

Mahā-parinibbāṇa Suttanta
Dhamma-kakka-ppavattana Sutta
Tevigga Sutta’anta
Âkankheyya Sutta’a
Ketokhila Sutta’a
Mahâ-Sudassana Sutta’anta
Sabbâsava Sutta’a

The Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta is Sutta 16 in the Digha Nikaya, a scripture belonging to the Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism. It concerns the end of Gautama Buddha’s life – his parinibbana – and is the longest sutta of the Pāli Canon. Because of its attention to detail, it has been resorted to as the principal source of reference in most standard accounts of the Buddha’s death. The sutta begins a few days before the rainy retreat when Vassakara, the minister, visited the Buddha in Rajgir on the initiative of Ajatashatru, a king of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha. The narrative continues beyond the three months of the rainy retreat and records the passing away of the Buddha, his cremation and the division of relics finally ending with the erection of eight cetiyas or monuments enshrining the relics of the Buddha. This shows the Indian origin of Buddhist funeral customs.

The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (Hindi: The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of the Dharma Sutta or Promulgation of the Law Sutta) is a Buddhist text that is considered by Buddhists to be a record of the first sermon given by Gautama Buddha. The main topic of this sutta is the Four Noble Truths, which refer to and express the basic orientation of Buddhism in a formulaic expression. This sutta also refers to the Buddhist concepts of the Middle Way, impermanence, and dependent origination. According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha delivered this discourse on the day of Asalha Puja, in the month of Ashadha, in a deer sanctuary in Isipatana. This was seven weeks after he attained enlightenment. His audience consisted of five ascetics who had been his former companions: Kondañña, Assaji, Bhaddiya, Vappa, and Mahānāma.

Volume XII: Satapatha Brahmana (Part 1 of 5)

Mâdhyandina Shakha I-II

The Shatapatha Brahmana (meaning ‘Brāhmaṇa of one hundred paths’) is a commentary on the Śukla (white) Yajurveda. It is written by the Father of the Indian philosophy saint Yajnavalkya. Described as the most complete, systematic, and important of the Brahmanas[2] (commentaries on the Vedas), it contains detailed explanations of Vedic sacrificial rituals, symbolism, and mythology.

Particularly in its description of sacrificial rituals (including construction of complex fire-altars), the Shatapatha Brahmana provides scientific knowledge of geometry (e.g. calculations of pi and the root of the Pythagorean theorem) and observational astronomy (e.g. planetary distances and the assertion that the Earth is circular) from the Vedic period.

The Shatapatha Brahmana is also considered to be significant in the development of Vaishnavism as the origin of several Puranic legends and avatars of the RigVedic god Vishnu. Notably, all of them (Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, and Vamana) are listed as the first five avatars in the Dashavatara (the ten principal avatars of Vishnu).

Madhyandina Shakha is a shakha (branch) of Shukla Yajurveda. This branch includes Madhyandina Samhita, Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana, Ishavasya Upanishad and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Recitation of this Shakha is prevalent over most of North India, Maharashtra and among Veda pandits of Gujarat.

Volume XIII: Vinaya Texts (Part 1 of 3)

Pāṭimokkha
Mahâvagga, I–IV

The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit) is the division of the Buddhist canon (Tripitaka) containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist monastic community, or sangha. Three parallel Vinaya traditions remain in use by modern monastic communities: the Theravada (Sri Lanka & Southeast Asia), Mulasarvastivada (Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan region) and Dharmaguptaka (East Asian Buddhism). In addition to these Vinaya traditions, Vinaya texts of several extinct schools of Indian Buddhism are preserved in the Tibetan and East Asian canons, including those of the Kāśyapīya, the Mahāsāṃghika, the Mahīśāsaka, and the Sarvāstivāda.

The word Vinaya is derived from a Sanskrit verb that can mean to lead, take away, train, tame, or guide, or alternately to educate or teach. It is often translated as ‘discipline’, with Dhamma-vinaya, ‘doctrine and discipline’, used by the Buddha to refer to his complete teachings, suggesting its integral role in Buddhist practice.

In Theravada Buddhism, the Pāṭimokkha is the basic code of monastic discipline, consisting of 227 rules for fully ordained monks (bhikkhus) and 311 for nuns (bhikkhuṇīs). It is contained in the Suttavibhaṅga, a division of the Vinaya Piṭaka. The Mahāvagga includes accounts of Gautama Buddha’s and the ten principal disciples’ awakenings, as well as rules for uposatha days and monastic ordination.

Volume XIV: The Sacred Laws of the Âryas (Part 2 of 2)

Vâsishtha
Baudhâyana
Parisishta

Vasishtha is one of the oldest and most revered Vedic rishis or sages. He is one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis) of India. Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of the Rigveda. Vashishtha and his family are mentioned in Rigvedic verse 10.167.4, other Rigvedic mandalas and in many Vedic texts. His ideas have been influential and he was called the first sage of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy by Adi Shankara.

The Yoga Vashishtha, Vashishtha Samhita, as well as some versions of the Agni Purana and Vishnu Purana are attributed to him. He is the subject of many legends, such as him being in possession of the divine cow Kamadhenu and Nandini her child, who could grant anything to their owners. He is famous in Hindu legends for his legendary conflicts with sage Vishvamitra. In the Ramayana, he was the family priest of the Raghu dynasty and teacher of Lord Rama and his brothers.

The Baudhāyana sūtras are a group of Vedic Sanskrit texts which cover dharma, daily ritual, mathematics, etc. They belong to the Taittiriya branch of the Krishna Yajurveda school and are among the earliest texts of the genre, perhaps compiled in the 8th to 6th centuries BCE. The Baudhāyana Śulbasûtra is noted for containing several early mathematical results, including an approximation of the square root of 2 and the statement of the Pythagorean theorem.

Volume XV: The Upanishads (Part 2 of 2)

Katha Upanishad
Mundaka Upanishad
Taittiriya Upanishad
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad
Svetasvatara Upanishad
Prasña Upanishad
Maitrayani Upanishad

Volume XVI: The Sacred Books of China (Part 2 of 6)

Yi King (I Ching)

The I Ching or Yi Jing, usually translated as Book of Changes or Classic of Changes, is an ancient Chinese divination text and among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou period (1000–750 BC), over the course of the Warring States period and early imperial period (500–200 BC) it was transformed into a cosmological text with a series of philosophical commentaries known as the “Ten Wings”. After becoming part of the Five Classics in the 2nd century BC, the I Ching was the subject of scholarly commentary and the basis for divination practice for centuries across the Far East, and eventually took on an influential role in Western understanding of Eastern thought.

The I Ching is used in a type of divination called cleromancy, which uses apparently random numbers. Six numbers between 6 and 9 are turned into a hexagram, which can then be looked up in the text, in which hexagrams are arranged in an order known as the King Wen sequence. The interpretation of the readings found in the I Ching is a matter which has been endlessly discussed and debated over in the centuries following its compilation, and many commentators have used the book symbolically, often to provide guidance for moral decision making as informed by Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The hexagrams themselves have often acquired cosmological significance and been paralleled with many other traditional names for the processes of change such as yin and yang and Wu Xing.

Volume XVII: Vinaya Texts (Part 2 of 3)

Mahavagga, V–X
Kullavagga, I–II

The Mahāvagga includes accounts of Gautama Buddha’s and the ten principal disciples’ awakenings, as well as rules for uposatha days and monastic ordination.

Volume XVIII: Pahlavi Texts (Part 2 of 5)

Dâdistân-î Dinik
Epistles of Mânûskîhar

Dādestān ī Dēnīg (“Religious Judgments”) or Pursišn-Nāmag (“Book of Questions”) is a 9th-century Middle Persian work written by Manushchihr (Manūščihr), who was high priest of the Persian Zoroastrian community of Pārs and Kermān, son of Gušn-Jam and brother of Zadspram. The work consists of an introduction and ninety-two questions along with Manūščihr’s answers. His questions varies from religious to social, ethical, legal, philosophical, cosmological, etc. The style of his work is abstruse, dense, and is heavily influenced by New Persian.

Volume XIX: The Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king

Aśvaghoṣa or Ashvaghosha (80-150 CE) was a Sarvāstivāda Buddhist philosopher, dramatist, poet and orator from India. He was born in Saketa in northern India. He is believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet prior to Kālidāsa. He was the most famous in a group of Buddhist court writers, whose epics rivalled the contemporary Ramayana. Whereas much of Buddhist literature prior to the time of Aśvaghoṣa had been composed in Pāli and Prakrit, Aśvaghoṣa wrote in Classical Sanskrit.

Buddhacharita (“Acts of the Buddha”), in Chinese known as the Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king, is an epic poem in the Sanskrit mahakavya style on the life of Gautama Buddha by Aśvaghoṣa, composed in the early second century CE. Of the poem’s 28 cantos, the first 14 are extant in Sanskrit complete (cantos 15 to 28 are in incomplete form).

In 420 CE, Dharmakṣema made a Chinese translation, and in the 7th or 8th century, a Tibetan version was made which “appears to be much closer to the original Sanskrit than the Chinese”.

Volume XX: Vinaya Texts (Part 3 of 3)

Kullavagga, IV–XII

Volume XXI: The Saddharma-Pundarika or The Lotus of the True Law

The Lotus Sūtra (lit. ’Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma’) is one of the most influential and venerated Buddhist Mahayana sutras, sourcing the doctrinal basis on which the Tiantai, Tendai, Cheontae, and Nichiren schools of Buddhism were established. According to British professor Paul Williams, “For many Buddhists in East Asia since early times, the Lotus Sutra contains the final teaching of Shakyamuni Buddha — complete and sufficient for salvation.”

The sutra is presented in the form of a drama consisting of several mythological scenes. According to British writer Sangharakshita, it uses the entire cosmos for its stage, employs a multitude of mythological beings as actors and “speaks almost exclusively in the language of images.”

The Lotus Sūtra is known for its extensive instruction on the concept and usage of skillful means – (Sanskrit: upāya, Japanese: hōben), the seventh paramita or perfection of a Bodhisattva – mostly in the form of parables. The many ‘skillful’ or ‘expedient’ means and the “three vehicles” are revealed to all be part of the One Vehicle (Ekayāna), which is also the Bodhisattva path. This is also one of the first sutras to use the term Mahāyāna, or “Great Vehicle”. In the Lotus Sūtra, the One Vehicle encompasses so many different teachings because the Buddha’s compassion and wish to save all beings led him to adapt the teaching to suit many different kinds of people.

Volume XXII: Jaina Sûtras (Part 1 of 2)

Âkârânga sûtra
Kalpa sûtra

The Acharanga Sutra is the first of the twelve Angas, part of the agamas (religious texts) which were compiled based on the teachings of Mahavira. The Acharanga Sutra is the oldest agam, from a linguistic point of view, written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. The Sutra contains two books, or Srutaskandhas. The first book is the older part, to which other treatises were later added. It describes the conduct and behavior of ascetic life: the mode of asking for food, bowl, clothes, conduct while walking and speaking and regulation of possessions by ascetics. It also describes the penance of Mahavira, the Great Hero. The second book is divided into four sections called Kulas. There were originally five Kûlâs, but the fifth, the Nisîhiyagghana, is now reckoned as a separate work. The first and second parts lay down rules for conduct of ascetics.

The Kalpa Sūtra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Traditionally ascribed to Bhadrabahu, which would place it in the 4th century BCE, it was probably put in writing 980 or 993 years after the Nirvana (Moksha) of Mahavira. Within the six sections of the Jain literary corpus belonging to the Svetambara school, it is classed as one of the Cheda Sūtras. This Sutra contains detailed life histories and, from the mid-15th century, was frequently illustrated with miniature painting. The oldest surviving copies are written on paper in western India in the 14th century. The book is read and illustrated in an eight-day-long festival of Paryushan by Jain monks for general people. Only monks can read the scriptures, as in Jainism, this book has very high spiritual values.

Volume XXIII: Zend-Avesta (Part 2/3)

Sîrôzahs
Yasts
Nyâyis

Volume XXIV: Pahlavi Texts (Part 3 of 5)

Dinai Mainög-i khirad
Sikand-Gümanik Vigar
Sad Dar

Shikand-gumanig Vizar is a Zoroastrian theology book of 9th century Iran, written by Mardan-Farrukh. Part apologetics, part polemic, the book was composed when Zoroastrians endured a perilous status as a harassed and declining minority. Its author discusses several neighboring religions, hence it contains nascent elements of an academic discipline: comparative religion. The Sad-dar or Saddar, literally “Hundred Doors”, is a Persian book about Zoroastrianism. The hundred chapters are guidelines that Zoroastrians should follow.

Volume XXV: The Laws of Manu

With extracts from seven commentaries

The Manusmṛti is an ancient legal text and constitution among the many Dharmaśāstras of Hinduism. It was one of the first Sanskrit texts to have been translated into English in 1776, by British philologist Sir William Jones, and was used to construct Hindu law to the advantage of British colonial government.

Over fifty manuscripts of the Manusmriti are now known, but the earliest discovered, most translated and presumed authentic version since the 18th century has been the “Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) manuscript with Kulluka Bhatta commentary”. Modern scholarship states this presumed authenticity is false, and the various manuscripts of Manusmriti discovered in India are inconsistent with each other, and within themselves, raising concerns of its authenticity, insertions and interpolations made into the text in later times.

The metrical text is in Sanskrit, is variously dated to be from the 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE, and it presents itself as a discourse given by Manu (Svayambhuva) and Bhrigu on dharma topics such as duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others. The text’s fame spread outside Bharat (India), long before the colonial era. The medieval era Buddhistic law of Myanmar and Thailand are also ascribed to Manu, and the text influenced past Hindu kingdoms in Cambodia and Indonesia.

Manusmriti is also called the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra or Laws of Manu.

Volume XXVI: Satapatha Brahmana (Part 2 of 5)

Mâdhyandina Shakha III–IV

The Shatapatha Brahmana (meaning ‘Brāhmaṇa of one hundred paths’) is a commentary on the Śukla (white) Yajurveda. It is written by the Father of the Indian philosophy saint Yajnavalkya. Described as the most complete, systematic, and important of the Brahmanas (commentaries on the Vedas), it contains detailed explanations of Vedic sacrificial rituals, symbolism, and mythology.

Volume XXVII: The Sacred Books of China (Part 3 of 6)

The Lî Kî I (Book of Rites)

Volume XXVIII: The Sacred Books of China (Part 4 of 6)

The Lî Kî Ii (Book of Rites)

The Book of Rites, also known as the Liji, is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The Book of Rites, along with the Rites of Zhou (Zhōulǐ) and the Book of Etiquette and Rites (Yílǐ), which are together known as the “Three Li (Sānlǐ),” constitute the ritual (lǐ) section of the Five Classics which lay at the core of the traditional Confucian canon (Each of the “five” classics is a group of works rather than a single text). As a core text of the Confucian canon, it is also known as the Classic of Rites or Lijing, which some scholars believe was the original title before it was changed by Dai Sheng.

The Book of Rites is a diverse collection of texts of uncertain origin and date that lacks the overall structure found in the other “rites” texts (the Rites of Zhou and the Etiquette and Ceremonial). Some sections consist of definitions of ritual terms, particularly those found in the Etiquette and Ceremonial, while others contain details of the life and teachings of Confucius. Parts of the text have been traced to such pre-Han works as the Xunzi and Lüshi Chunqiu, while others are believed to date from the Former Han period.

Confucius described Li as all traditional forms that provided a standard of conduct. Li literally means “rites” but it can also be used to refer to “ceremonial” or “rules of conduct”. The term has come to generally be associated with “good form”, “decorum” or “politeness”. Confucius felt that li should emphasize the spirit of piety and respect for others through rules of conduct and ceremonies. As outlined in the Book of Rites, li is meant to restore the significance of traditional forms by looking at the simplicity of the past. Confucius insisted that a standard of conduct that focused on traditional forms would be a way to ease the turmoil of collapsing Zhou state. The absolute power of li is displayed in the Book of Rites: “Of all things to which the people owe their lives the rites are the most important…” The ideas of li were thought to become closely associated with human nature, ethics, and social order as the population integrated li into their lives. Li is beneficial to society because it guides people to recognize and fulfill their responsibilities toward others.

Volume XXIX: Grihya-sutras (Part 1 of 2)

Sankhyayana-Grihya-sutra
Āśvalāyana-Grihya-sutra
Paraskara-Grihya-sutra
Khadia-Grihya-sutra

Kalpa means “proper, fit” and is one of the six disciplines of the Vedānga, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism. This field of study is focused on the procedures and ceremonies associated with Vedic ritual practice. The major texts of Kalpa Vedanga are called Kalpa Sutras in Hinduism. The scope of these texts includes Vedic rituals, rites of passage rituals associated with major life events such as birth, wedding and death in family, as well as personal conduct and proper duties in the life of an individual. Most Kalpasutras texts have experienced interpolation, changes and consequent corruption over their history, and Apasthamba Kalpasutra ancillary to the Yajurveda may be the best preserved text in this genre. Kalpa Sutras are also found in other Indian traditions, such as Jainism.

The Gṛhyasūtras “domestic sūtras” are a category of Sanskrit texts prescribing Vedic rituals, mainly relating to rites of passage such as rituals of wedding, birth celebration, namegiving and coming of age (puberty). Their language is late Vedic Sanskrit, and they date to around roughly 500 BCE, contemporary with the Śrautasūtras. They are named after Vedic shakhas.

Volume XXX: Grihya-sutras (Part 2 of 2)

Gobhila
Hiranyakesin
Apastamba
Yajña Paribhashasutras

Āpastamba Dharmasūtra is a Sanskrit text and one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. It is one of three extant Dharmasutras texts from the Taittiriya school of Krishna Yajurveda, the other two being Baudhayana Dharmasutra and Hiranyakesin Dharmasutra. The Gautama Dharmasutra is part of Apastamba Kalpasutra collection, along with Apastamba Shrautasutra and Apastamba Grihyasutra. It is one of the best preserved ancient texts on Dharma. The text is notable for its broad minded and liberal views on women and all social classes. It is also notable for mentioning and citing views of ten ancient experts on Dharma, which has led scholars to conclude that there existed a rich genre of Dharmasutras text in ancient India before this text was composed.

Yajna (lit. ’sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering’) refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras. Yajna has been a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as well as Yajurveda. The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (Agni). Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda (ritual works) portion of the Vedic literature, in contrast to Jnana-kanda (knowledge) portion contained in the Vedic Upanishads. The proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu philosophy. Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu’s rites of passage, such as weddings. Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.

Volume XXXI: Zend-Avesta (Part 3 of 3)

Yasna
Visparad
Afrînagân
Gâhs
Miscellaneous fragments

Yasna is the Avestan name of Zoroastrianism’s principal act of worship. It is also the name of the primary liturgical collection of Avesta texts, recited during that yasna ceremony. The function of the yasna ceremony is, very roughly described, to strengthen the orderly spiritual and material creations of Ahura Mazda against the assault of the destructive forces of Angra Mainyu. The yasna service, that is, the recitation of the Yasna texts, culminates in the apæ zaothra, the “offering to the waters.” The ceremony may also be extended by recitation of the Visperad and Vendidad texts. A normal yasna ceremony, without extensions, takes about two hours when it is recited by an experienced priest.

The Yasna texts constitute 72 chapters altogether, composed at different times and by different authors. The middle chapters include of the (linguistically) oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon. These very ancient texts, in the very archaic and linguistically difficult Old Avestan language, include the four most sacred Zoroastrian prayers, and also 17 chapters comprising the five Gathas, hymns that are considered to have been composed by Zoroaster himself. Several sections of the Yasna include exegetical comments. Yasna chapter and verse pointers are traditionally abbreviated with Y. The Avestan language word yasna literally means ‘oblation’ or ‘worship’. The word is linguistically related to (but not the functional equivalent of) Vedic Sanskrit yajna. Unlike Sanskrit yajna, which refers to a class of rituals, Zoroastrian yasna is a particular liturgy and ritual, and the ritual has “to do with water rather than fire.”

Visperad or Visprad is either a particular Zoroastrian religious ceremony or the name given to a passage collection within the greater Avesta compendium of texts. The Visperad ceremony “consists of the rituals of the Yasna, virtually unchanged, but with a liturgy extended by twenty-three supplementary sections.” These supplementary sections (kardag) are then – from a philological perspective – the passages that make up the Visperad collection. The name Visperad is a contraction of Avestan vispe ratavo, with an ambiguous meaning. Subject to how ratu is translated, vispe ratavo may be translated as “(prayer to) all patrons” or “all masters” or the older and today less common “all chiefs” or “all lords”.

Volume XXXII: Vedic Hymns (Part 1 of 2)

Hymns to the Maruts
Hymns to Rudra
Hymns to Vâyu
Hymns to Vâta
Bibliographical list of the more important publications on the Rigveda

The oral tradition of the Vedas (Śruti) consists of several pathas, “recitations” or ways of chanting the Vedic mantras. Such traditions of Vedic chant are often considered the oldest unbroken oral tradition in existence, the fixation of the Vedic texts (samhitas) as preserved dating to roughly the time of Homer (early Iron Age).

UNESCO proclaimed the tradition of Vedic chant a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on November 7, 2008. Wayne Howard noted in the preface of his book, Veda Recitation in Varanasi, “The four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva) are not ‘books’ in the usual sense, though within the past hundred years each veda has appeared in several printed editions. They comprise rather tonally accented verses and hypnotic, abstruse melodies whose proper realizations demand oral instead of visual transmission. They are robbed of their essence when transferred to paper, for without the human element the innumerable nuances and fine intonations – inseparable and necessary components of all four compilations – are lost completely. The ultimate authority in Vedic matters is never the printed page but rather the few members – who are today keeping the centuries-old traditions alive.”

Volume XXXIII: The Minor Law-Books: Brihaspati

Bṛhaspati (meaning spati of briha, the spirit of vastness of the universe written as Brihaspati) is an Indian name, and refers to different mythical figures depending on the age of the text. In ancient Hindu literature Brihaspati is a Vedic era sage who counsels the gods, while in some medieval texts the word refers to the largest planet of the solar system, Jupiter. He taught Bhishma the duties of a king which he later taught it to Vidura.

Brhaspati sutras, also called the Barhaspatya sutras, is an ancient Sanskrit text named after its author Brhaspati, known for its theories of materialism and anti-theism. Its tenets are at the foundation of the Charvaka school of non-orthodox Indian philosophy. The Brihaspati Sutras manuscript has been lost to history or yet to be found. However, the text is quoted in other Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina texts, and this secondary literature has been the source for reconstructing the Brhaspati sutras partially. Some scholars suggest that Brhaspati sutras are named after Brhaspati in the Vedas, but other scholars dispute this theory because the text rejects the Vedas.

Volume XXXIV: Vedanta-Sutras (Part 1 of 3)

Commentary by Sankaracharya (Part 1 of 2)
Adhyâya I–II (Pâda I–II)

The Brahma Sūtras is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage Badarayana or sage Vyasa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400-450 CE, while the original version might be ancient and composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE. The text systematizes and summarizes the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the Upanishads. Brahmaasutra synthesized the diverse and sometimes conflicting teachings of Upanishads by arguing, as John Koller states: “that Brahman and Atman are, in some respects, different, but, at the deepest level, non-different (advaita), being identical.” It is one of the foundational texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy.

The Brahma Sūtras consists of 555 aphoristic verses (sutras) in four chapters. These verses are primarily about the nature of human existence and universe, and ideas about the metaphysical principle of Ultimate Reality called Brahman. The first chapter discusses the metaphysics of Absolute Reality, the second chapter reviews and addresses the objections raised by the ideas of competing orthodox schools of Hindu philosophies such as Nyaya, Yoga, Vaisheshika and Mimamsa as well as heterodox schools such as Buddhism and Jainism, the third chapter discusses epistemology and path to gaining spiritually liberating knowledge, and the last chapter states why such a knowledge is an important human need.

The Brahma Sūtras is one of three most important texts in Vedanta along with the Principal Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. It has been influential to various schools of Indian philosophies, but interpreted differently by the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta sub-school, the theistic Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita Vedanta sub-schools, as well as others. Several commentaries on the Brahma Sūtras are lost to history or yet to be found; of the surviving ones, the most well studied commentaries on the Brahma Sūtras include the bhashya by Adi Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhvacharya, Bhaskara and many others.

It is also known as the Vedanta Sutra, deriving this name from Vedanta which literally means the “final aim of the Vedas”. Other names for Brahma Sūtras is Shariraka Sutra, wherein Shariraka means “that which lives in the body (Sharira), or the Self, Soul”, and Bhikshu-sutra, which literally means “Sutras for monks or mendicants”.

Volume XXXV: The Questions of King Milinda (Part 1 of 2)

Milindapañha

Volume XXXVI: The Questions of King Milinda (Part 2 of 2)

Milindapañha

The Milinda Pañha (lit. ’Questions of Milinda’) is a Buddhist text which dates from sometime between 100 BC and 200 AD. It purports to record a dialogue between the Buddhist sage Nāgasena, and the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Pali: Milinda) of Bactria, who reigned in the 2nd century BC.

The Milinda Pañha is regarded as canonical in Burmese Buddhism, included as part of the book of Khuddaka Nikaya. An abridged version is included as part of Chinese Mahayana translations of the canon. The Milinda Pañha is not regarded as canonical by Thai or Sri Lankan Buddhism, however, despite the surviving Theravāda text being in Sinhalese script. The Chinese text titled the Monk Nāgasena Sutra corresponds to the first three chapters of the Milindapanha. It was translated sometime during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420).

According to the Milindapanha, Milinda/Menander, identified as Menander I, embraced the Buddhist faith. He is described as constantly accompanied by a guard of 500 Greek (Yonaka) soldiers, and two of his counselors are named Demetrius and Antiochus. In the Milindanpanha, Menander is introduced as the “king of the city of Sāgala in India, Milinda by name, learned, eloquent, wise, and able”. Buddhist tradition relates that, following his discussions with Nāgasena, Menander adopted the Buddhist faith “as long as life shall last” and then handed over his kingdom to his son to retire from the world. It is described that he attained enlightenment afterwards.

Volume XXXVII: Pahlavi Texts (Part 4 of 5)

Contents of the Nasks

Volume XXXVIII: Vedanta-Sutras (Part 2 of 3)

Commentary by Sankaracharya (Part 2 of 2)
Adhyâya II (Pâda III–IV)–IV

Volume XXXIX: Texts of Taoism (Part 1 of 2)

Tâo Teh King (Tâo Te Ching) of Lâo Dze (Lao Tsu)
The Writings of Kwang-tze (Chuang-tse), I–XVII

Volume XL: Texts of Taoism (Part 2 of 2)

The Writings of Kwang Tse, XVII–XXXIII
The Thâi-shang tractate of actions and their retributions
Other Taoist texts
Index to vols. 39 and 40

Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (lit. ‘Way’). In Taoism the Tao is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. Taoism teaches about the various disciplines for achieving “perfection” by becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the universe, called “the way” or “Tao”. Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize wu wei (action without intention), “naturalness”, simplicity, spontaneity and the Three Treasures: compassion, frugality and humility.

The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang (Naturalists) and was deeply influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the I Ching (Yi Jing), which expounds a philosophical system about how to keep human behaviour in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The “Legalist” Shen Buhai (c. 400 – c. 337 BCE) may also have been a major influence, expounding a realpolitik of wu wei. The Tao Te Ching (Dao De Jing), a compact book containing teachings attributed to Lao Tzu (Lǎozǐ; Lao Tzŭ), is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi.

Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries and Taoists (dàoshi, “masters of the Tao”), a title traditionally attributed only to the clergy and not to their lay followers, usually take care to note the distinction between their ritual tradition and the practices of Chinese folk religion and non-Taoist vernacular ritual orders, which are often mistakenly identified as pertaining to Taoism. Chinese alchemy (especially neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Today, the Taoist tradition is one of the five religious doctrines officially recognized by the People’s Republic of China. It is also a major religion in Taiwan and claims adherents in a number of other societies, in particular in Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia.

The Tao Te Ching, along with the Zhuangzi, is a fundamental text for both philosophical and religious Taoism. It also strongly influenced other schools of Chinese philosophy and religion, including Legalism, Confucianism, and Buddhism, which was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words and concepts when it was originally introduced to China. Many artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and gardeners, have used the Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration. Its influence has spread widely outside East Asia and it is among the most translated works in world literature.

The Zhuangzi (historically romanized Chuang Tzŭ) is an ancient Chinese text from the late Warring States period (476–221 BC) which contains stories and anecdotes that exemplify the carefree nature of the ideal Taoist sage. Named for its traditional author, “Master Zhuang” (Zhuangzi), the Zhuangzi is one of the two foundational texts of Taoism, along with the Tao Te Ching.

The Zhuangzi consists of a large collection of anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables, which are often humorous or irreverent. Its main themes are of spontaneity in action and of freedom from the human world and its conventions. The fables and anecdotes in the text attempt to illustrate the falseness of human distinctions between good and bad, large and small, life and death, and human and nature. While other ancient Chinese philosophers focused on moral and personal duty, Zhuangzi promoted carefree wandering and becoming one with “the Way” (Dào) by following nature.

Though primarily known as a philosophical work, the Zhuangzi is regarded as one of the greatest literary works in all of Chinese history, and has been called “the most important pre-Qin text for the study of Chinese literature”. A masterpiece of both philosophical and literary skill, it has significantly influenced writers for more than 2000 years from the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) to the present. Many major Chinese writers and poets in history—such as Sima Xiangru and Sima Qian during the Han dynasty, Ruan Ji and Tao Yuanming during the Six Dynasties (222–589), Li Bai during the Tang dynasty (618–907), and Su Shi and Lu You in the Song dynasty (960–1279)—were heavily influenced by the Zhuangzi.

Volume XLI: Satapatha Brahmana (Part 3 of 5)

Mâdhyandina Shakha V–VII

The Shatapatha Brahmana (meaning ‘Brāhmaṇa of one hundred paths’) is a commentary on the Śukla (white) Yajurveda. It is written by the Father of the Indian philosophy saint Yajnavalkya. Described as the most complete, systematic, and important of the Brahmanas (commentaries on the Vedas), it contains detailed explanations of Vedic sacrificial rituals, symbolism, and mythology.

Volume XLII: Hymns of the Atharvaveda

Together With Extracts From the Ritual Books and the Commentaries

The Atharva Veda (Atharvavedaḥ from atharvāṇas and veda, meaning “knowledge”) is the “knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the procedures for everyday life”. The text is the fourth Veda, but has been a late addition to the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism.

It is a collection of 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books. About a sixth of the Atharvaveda texts adapts verses from the Rigveda, and except for Books 15 and 16, the text is in poem form deploying a diversity of Vedic matters. Two different recensions of the text – the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya – have survived into modern times. Reliable manuscripts of the Paippalada edition were believed to have been lost, but a well-preserved version was discovered among a collection of palm leaf manuscripts in Odisha in 1957.

The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the “Veda of magical formulas”, a description considered incorrect by other scholars. In contrast to the ‘hieratic religion’ of the other three Vedas, the Atharvaveda is said to represent a ‘popular religion’, incorporating not only formulas for magic, but also the daily rituals for initiation into learning (upanayana), marriage and funerals. Royal rituals and the duties of the court priests are also included in the Atharvaveda.

The Atharvaveda was likely compiled as a Veda contemporaneously with Samaveda and Yajurveda, or about 1200 BC – 1000 BC. Along with the Samhita layer of text, the Atharvaveda includes a Brahmana text, and a final layer of the text that covers philosophical speculations. The latter layer of Atharvaveda text includes three primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy. These include the Mundaka Upanishad, the Mandukya Upanishad and the Prashna Upanishad.

Volume XLIII: Satapatha Brahmana (Part 4 of 5)

Mâdhyandina Shakha VII, IX, X

Volume XLIV: Satapatha Brahmana (Part 5 of 5)

Mâdhyandina Shakha XI–XIV

The Shatapatha Brahmana (meaning ‘Brāhmaṇa of one hundred paths’) is a commentary on the Śukla (white) Yajurveda. It is written by the Father of the Indian philosophy saint Yajnavalkya. Described as the most complete, systematic, and important of the Brahmanas (commentaries on the Vedas), it contains detailed explanations of Vedic sacrificial rituals, symbolism, and mythology.

Volume XLV: Jaina Sûtras (Part 2 of 2)

Uttarâdhyayana Sûtra
Sûtrakritânga Sûtra

Uttaradhyayana or Uttaradhyayana Sutra is one of the most important sacred books of the Svetambara Jains. It consists of 36 chapters, each of which deals with aspects of Jain doctrine and discipline.It is believed by some to contain the actual words of Bhagwan Mahavira.

Sūtrakṛtāṅga (also known in Prakrit as Sūyagaḍaṃga) is the second agama of the 12 main aṅgās of the Jain Svetambara canon. According to the Svetambara tradition it was written by Gandhara Sudharmasvami in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.The text is in two main parts: the first in verse and the second in prose. It is written using techniques including narration and questions and answers, and the chapters start with Sudharmasvami explaining the various doctrines to his chief disciple Jambuswami and answering his questions. According to Jain the text dates c. 4th-3rd century BCE, but Johannes Bronkhorst argues that due to the Buddhist material contained within this text, it cannot be later than the 2nd century BCE.

Volume XLVI: Vedic Hymns (Part 2 of 2)

Hymns to Agni (Mandalas I–V)

Volume XLVII: Pahlavi Texts (Part 5 of 5)

Marvels of Zoroastrianism

Volume XLVIII: Vedanta-Sutras (Part 3 of 3)

With the commentary of Râmânuja

Ramanuja or Ramanujacharya (c. 1017–1137 CE) was an Indian philosopher, Hindu theologian, social reformer, and one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism. His philosophical foundations for devotionalism were influential to the Bhakti movement.

Volume XLIX: Buddhist Mahâyâna Texts

Buddha-karita of Aśvaghoṣa
Longer Sukhâvatî-vyûha
Shorter Sukhâvatî-vyûha
Vagrakkhedikâ
The longer Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra
The shorter Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra
Amitâyur dhyâna-sûtra

Mahāyāna (“Great Vehicle”) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna is considered one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism (the other being Theravada). Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards). It accepts the main scriptures and teachings of early Buddhism, but also adds various new doctrines and texts such as the Mahāyāna Sūtras.

“Mahāyāna” also refers to the path of the bodhisattva striving to become a fully awakened Buddha (samyaksaṃbuddha) for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called the “Bodhisattva Vehicle” (Bodhisattvayāna). Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees the state of the arhat as incomplete. Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravada (such as Amitabha). Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as the Madhyamaka theory of emptiness (śūnyatā), the Vijñānavāda doctrine and the Buddha-nature teaching.

The Vajrayāna traditions are a subset of Mahāyāna which makes use of numerous tantric methods that they consider to be faster and more powerful at achieving Buddhahood.

Although it was initially a small movement in India, Mahāyāna eventually grew to become an influential force in Indian Buddhism. Large scholastic centers associated with Mahāyāna such as Nalanda and Vikramashila thrived between the seventh and twelfth centuries. In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread throughout South Asia, Central Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia. It remains influential today in China, Taiwan, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Nepal, Malaysia, and Bhutan.

The Mahāyāna tradition is the largest major tradition of Buddhism existing today, (with 53% of Buddhists belonging to East Asian Mahāyāna and 6% to Vajrayāna), compared to 36% for Theravada (survey from 2010).

Volume L: General index to the names and subject-matter of the Sacred Books of the East

Antilogicalism

The Starry Sky Above and the Moral Life Within

Sacred Books of the East

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